Medication-Induced OCD Behavior

Substance/Medication-Induced OCD Behavior OCD Causes Print Substance/Medication-Induced OCD By Elizabeth Hartney, BSc., MSc., MA, PhD Elizabeth Hartney, BSc, MSc, MA, PhD is a psychologist, professor, and Director of the Centre for Health Leadership and Research at Royal Roads University, Canada. Learn about our editorial policy Elizabeth Hartney, BSc., MSc., MA, PhD Medically reviewed by Medically reviewed by Steven Gans, MD on August 05, 2016 Steven Gans, MD is board-certified in psychiatry and is an active supervisor, teacher, and mentor at Massachusetts General Hospital. Learn about our Medical Review Board Steven Gans, MD Updated on October 11, 2019 Atsushi Yamada/Getty Images More in OCD Causes Symptoms and Diagnosis Treatment Types Living With OCD Related Conditions Substance/medication-induced obsessive compulsive disorder is the diagnostic name for drug-induced OCD. Obsessive-compulsive behavior is a group of seemingly uncontrollable and repetitive behaviors that are driven by obsessions. Obsessions are unwanted thoughts, urges or images that intrude on an individuals consciousness. They are associated with compulsive behaviors which are actions that the person feels compelled to carry out often in response to, and in an effort to control an obsession. These behaviors can be body-focused, for example, picking at ones own skin, or pulling out ones own hairs. Obsessions and compulsions can occur on their own or in combination and can be part of several different obsessive compulsive disorders, of which substance-induced OCD is just one. Unlike the transient feelings and intrusive thoughts that everyone experiences from time to time, especially during times of stress, or the occasional habitual behaviors we also all engage in from time to time, substance-induced obsessive compulsive disorder is considerably worse and more difficult for the individual to control. Although substance-induced OCD is rare, the consequences can be severe. The compulsions rarely have any realistic connection to the obsessions they are designed to neutralize or prevent. Rather, they form a ritualistic behavior that is designed to reduce anxiety but ultimately worsen the overall condition. And while some people with obsessive compulsive disorders are aware that the beliefs that are part of their obsessions are probably not true, some are less certain, and others are convinced that they actually are true, to the point where their beliefs are delusions. When physicians or psychologists give a diagnosis of substance/medication-induced obsessive compulsive disorder, they check to make sure that the obsessions or compulsions were not there before the use of the drug thought to be responsible. This is because there are different types of obsessive compulsive disorders, and if the symptoms were there before the substance use, it probably isnt the substance/medication-induced type of OCD. How Soon After Taking the Drug Can OCD Be Induced? In some cases, almost immediately. There is even a category with onset during intoxication, which means that the obsessive compulsive episode actually begins when the individual is high on the drug. It can also occur during withdrawal, during which severe mental problems are common. It is important that the person receives ongoing assessment as they move through the detox process, to ensure they are properly diagnosed and treated if symptoms persist. Generally, the diagnosis isnt given if the person has a history of obsessive compulsive disorder without substance use, or if the symptoms continue for more than a month after the person becomes abstinent from the drug. Obsessive compulsive behaviors can sometimes be part of delirium, which can also be substance-induced. If this is the only time that the symptoms are experienced, then the diagnosis of Substance/Medication-Induced Obsessive Compulsive Disorder is not usually given. Finally, for the diagnosis of Substance/Medication-Induced Obsessive Compulsive Disorder to be given, there has to be some sort of significant impact that the obsessive compulsive behavior is having on the persons life, either by causing a great deal of distress, or by impairing some aspect of their life, such as their social life, their employment situation, or another part of their life that is important to them. Drugs That Can Cause the Condition Unlike many other substance- or medication-induced disorders, the number of substances that are recognized as causing obsessive compulsive is quite limited. They include: Amphetamine-induced obsessive compulsive disorderOther stimulant-induced obsessive compulsive disorderCocaine-induced obsessive compulsive disorderOther substance-induced obsessive compulsive disorderUnknown substance-induced obsessive compulsive disorder

The Scientific Method Of Social Science Essay - 1504 Words

The Sociologic Scientific Method The scientific method is used to research a concept through all sciences. Social science uses the scientific method to systematically approach a research question or problems through objective and accurate observations, collection and analysis of data, and experimentation. Sociological research is the scientific means of acquiring information about various aspects of society and social behavior. Sociologist uses the scientific method to answer important questions just like any other scientist but instead they answer questions about society, deviance, and other cultures. Throughout this paper the scientific method will be used to analysis a research question. While following all of the strategic steps of the scientific method I will research the following question, â€Å"is violent behavior created in the environment a child lives in or the environment of their society?† The first step of the scientific method is defining the problem and produci ng a research question, in this case I am the researcher and the question I propose is â€Å"is violent behavior created in the environment a child lives in or the environment of their society?† The research question should be as clear and explanatory as possible so that readers get a clear understanding of what you are asking. Also when producing a research question the researcher must note all of the limitations, objectives, and purposes of the research. After choosing your topic or question the researcherShow MoreRelatedThe Effect of the Social Context of Scientific Work on the Methods and Findings of Science637 Words   |  3 PagesEffect of the Social Context of Scientific Work on the Methods and Findings of Science The world society is in a constant state of fluidity regarding everything from social customs and slang to technology and inventions. With even more abundance, scientific understanding and questioning evolve as time progresses. As the human race changes and grows, scientific knowledge of the world and universe must expand to accommodate the growth. To a large extent, the social situations Read MoreScience Throughout the Ages912 Words   |  4 PagesThe term Science comes from the Latin word scientia, meaning knowledge. The definition of science is a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe. 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Personally I had my doubts in the beginning of the course of how much science can be in politics and if it is truly aRead MoreEssay on Political Science864 Words   |  4 Pagesof Political Science being an actual science. Furthermore, there are opposing viewpoints between political science scholars as to the discipline being a social science or a synthesis of natural and social science. One such academic; Charles Merriam asserts that political science has the characteristics of both sciences, because it adapt the study of human behavior to provide an analysis of political institutions. Political scientists in theory espouse the notion that political science borrows elementsRead MoreScientific Method and Sir Karl Popper1407 Words   |  6 Pagesinspiring generations to ponder on the meaning of science, the methods to find truth, is one of the most influential philosophers of the 20th century. 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While few thinkers contend that climate is a major or primary proximal cause in suicides, the degree and nature ofRead MoreEssay Positivists 1421 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿Positivists believe that we can gain true and objective knowledge of reality by applying methods of natural sciences in sociology . For them, reality exists independently of the human mind and nature is made up of objective, observable, physical facts that are external to our minds. They believe that like matter, humans are directed by an external stimuli-the society-and they act accordingly (example: functionalism, Marxism). By analyzing quantitative data, positivists simply seek to discover lawsRead MoreCompare and Contrast the Natural and Social Sciences in Their Philosophy and Appro ach to Research983 Words   |  4 PagesThe natural sciences aim has been to establish universal laws , of cause and effect , in order to replicate and generalise scientific arguments. Laws of physics , mathematics and chemistry look for logical, verifiable knowledge of the natural and physical world , in an attempt to translate it into applicable models and systems of valid and recognised stock of facts and data. It has been the purpose of the natural sciences to produce scientific statements, following an objective , value-free observation

Essay Commanding Lady Fortune Machiavelli’s Theory of...

Commanding Lady Fortune: Machiavelli’s Theory of History Machiavelli opens his Discourses on Livy by declaring that what will follow will be entirely revolutionary—â€Å"a path yet untrodden by anyone†Ã¢â‚¬â€but then quickly backs down from such assertions, shifting his focus away from his own efforts to the modern views of the ancients, and leaving the nature of this revolutionary undertaking ambiguous (Discourses, 5) . Indeed, the purpose of the whole work is repeatedly skirted in the preface. Machiavelli instead focuses on the distinction between the moderns and the ancients, mourning the superficial modern adoption of ancient ideas in art and law that lacks a deeper understanding of the philosophical underpinnings of ancient thought. He†¦show more content†¦The implications of such a view of history for politics is Machiavelli’s claim that, because history is the study of the actions of great men with fixed natures, history itself is subject to a discernible method that may be used to understand the pres ent and predict the future. The man who understands the repetitive nature of history does not attribute the unexpected events of the present to fortune or God, but to his failure to find an accurate parallel to the present event in the past. In his outline of the proper education of a prince, Machiavelli suggests that â€Å"as to the exercise of the mind, a prince should read histories and consider in them the actions of excellent men, should see how they conducted themselves in wars, should examine the causes of their victories and losses, so as to be able to avoid the latter and imitate the former† (Prince, 60) . Philopoemen, by evaluating every possible military maneuver, achieved a state of expertise at which â€Å"there could never arise, while he led the army, any accident for which he did not have the remedy† (Prince, 60). In other words, the knowledge of all possibilities could head off the devastating effects of fortune. Thus, fortune is defined not as the sou rce of inexplicable events, but as the failure to predict events. Fortune—whether good or ill—is simply badShow MoreRelatedElizabethan Era11072 Words   |  45 PagesThe Elizabethan Age is the time period associated with the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) and is often considered to be a golden age in English history. It was an age considered to be the height of the English Renaissance, and saw the full flowering of English literature and English poetry. In Elizabethan theater, William Shakespeare, among others, composed and staged plays in a variety of settings that broke away from Englands past style of plays. It was an age of expansion and exploration

Hu Jintao Free Essays

Hu Jintao Since the beginning of civilization dictators have taken over and ruled there people. While some dictators are cruel and ruthless, others desire happiness of their people. Some acquire their power by force, while others go through the process fairly. We will write a custom essay sample on Hu Jintao or any similar topic only for you Order Now Once in power it is important to keep ones people in control through laws and policies. In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, one can compare the rise to fame, rules and policies, and cruelties and atrocities of Napoleon to that of the dictator Hu Jintao. One thing that sets Jintao apart from Napoleon is that somewhat low key way he ose to power. Hu Jintao began his political career at the bottom of the ladder and eventually climbed his way to the top (galegroup. com 2003). In 1982 Jintao was named party secretary of Guizhou Province by Hu Yaobank, a communist party officer. Once receiving this position he worked his way up to the title of president of china in 2003. Opposite of Jintao, Napoleon rose to power by force and cruel act (Orwell). Napoleon immediately named himself the leader of Animal Farm after old major died. When feeling threatened by his co-leader Snowball, he has him chased ff the farm by his guard dogs. Similar to the contrast of the rises to power, their actions as dictators also contrast greatly. While Napoleon is a leader of force and absolute control, Jintao is more about prosperity of China. Jintao had â€Å"shown that he can work effectively with others both those above and below his rank and with those of different governments† (galegroup. com 2004). Hu Jintao has tried successfully to rule china and its people to a state of prosperity. He has transformed the policies of China to upport this goal, while closely sheltering his people from the outside world. As Hu Jintao continued to lead China to prosperity napoleon inadvertently led the animals to destruction (Orwell). As leader, Napoleon made the animals inferior by creating laws that gave the pigs more rights. He changed many of the commandments to support his desire of absolute power. As dictators create these many policies, the republic naturally begins to resent them and in some cases they rebel. As the nation’s people began to question the actions of the government, many ictators resort violence as a way to control masses. Although not as major cruelties as Napoleon, Jintao has also committed some crimes as president. (history. com). while attempting to shelter the nation, Jintao has quietly been accused of crimes against the people of China. As a member of the communist party, Jintao was accused of human rights atrocities. While Jintao crimes are hidden and minor, Napoleon crimes are major and unimaginable (Orwell). Napoleon forced many of the animals to confess their unlawfulness and then shot and killed each one. He also sent boxer to be slaughtered at a glue factory once he was injured. As a dictator, Jintao and Napoleon committed unforgettable crimes. In George Orwell’s Animal Farm, one can compare the rise to fame, rules and policies, and cruelties and atrocities of Napoleon to that of the dictator Hu Jintao. He had a normal rising to power while Napoleon forced himself to be a ruler. Hu tried to destruction. Hu did not do any major atrocities, only being accused of minor crimes while Napoleon killed many. How to cite Hu Jintao, Papers

Southwest Airlines Essays (2711 words) - Southwest Airlines

Southwest Airlines While flying home to Texas last summer with Southwest Airlines, I had the most fun and unique experience with an airline that I could ever remember. It all started out quite oddly enough in the lobby just before takeoff. As I was checking in at the ticket counter, the representative asked me if I wanted to play a game that could get me free round trip tickets. "Sure, who wouldn't," I exclaimed. As she gave me my boarding pass she said, "Great, how many holes do you have in your socks?" Initially caught off guard, I responded, "Excuse me!" "The free tickets are being given to the customer who has the most holes in their socks," she explained with a perky smile. It was just my luck that I was wearing sandals. I told her, "Too bad your not checking underwear, because I'm sure I could be in the running for some free tickets with that sort of game." The remainder of the flight was filled with jokes and gags yet quality service from the pilot to the flight attendants. I can remember our flight attendant, dressed in a T-shirt, shorts and tennis shoes along with the rest of the staff, enhanced the safety announcements with the remark: "There may be fifty ways to leave your lover, but there are only six ways to leave this aircraft." Having fun is obviously a big part of Southwest Airlines formula to success. It all starts from the top with their childish yet brilliant boss Herb Kelleher. Kelleher, the company's CEO, is the "nut" behind these shenanigans. This chain-smoking, Wild Turkey-drinking Texas transplant from New Jersey has: ? Dressed for employee celebrations as Roy Orbison, Elvis, a medieval knight and a teapot; ? Passed out the peanuts himself on board his orange and brown 737s ? In front of cheering employees, arm-wrestled another CEO for the right to use the slogan "Plane Smart." (He got whipped, but he used the slogan anyway.) This man, once called "The High Priest of Ha Ha" by Fortune Magazine firmly believes: "If you feel real good about coming to work, if you feel real good about what you're doing, if you feel you are doing something for a meaningful cause and you're having fun while you're doing it, then you look forward to coming to work. You don't succumb to stress as easily and you cooperate with other people more quickly and more easily. If you have a sense of humor . . . it tends to not allow you to make mountains out of molehills." 1 Kelleher, known as Herb to the troops and his partners, reinvented air travel twenty-five years ago with its low fares and zany irreverent style. This paper will give a historical overview of the company, discuss the ingredients to the company success, offer some financial strengths and present a final conclusion. Section I: Southwest's History Twenty-seven years ago, Rollin King, a San Antonio entrepreneur who owned a small commuter air service, and Kelleher, who was a lawyer at the time, got together and decided to start a different kind of airline. They began with one simple notion. If you get your passengers to their destinations when they want to get there, on time, at the lowest possible fares, and make certain they have a good time doing it, people will fly your airline. And you know what? They were right. Within those 27 years, Southwest Airlines became the fifth largest major airline in America. Today, they have flown over 50 million passengers a year to 54 cities all over the southwest and beyond. They do it over 2,300 times a day with over 267 of the newest jets in the nation and fly only one type aircraft; the B-737. The average age of their fleet is only 8.4 years and they own over sixty percent of them. In May 1988, they were the first airline to win the coveted U.S. Department of Transportation Triple Crown for a month - Best On-time Record, Best Baggage Handling, and Fewest Customer Complaints. Since then, they've won it thirty-one times, as well as five annual Triple Crowns for 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, and 1996. They have been an airline whose has led to the advancement of the commercial airline industry. They were the first airline with a frequent flyer program to give credit for the number of trips taken and not the number of miles flown. They have pioneered senior discounts, Fun Fares, Fun Packs, a same-day air freight delivery service, ticketless

Gas Chromatography - What It Is and How It Works

Gas Chromatography - What It Is and How It Works Gas chromatography (GC) is an analytical technique used to separate and analyze samples that can be vaporized without thermal decomposition. Sometimes gas chromatography is known as gas-liquid partition chromatography (GLPC) or vapor-phase chromatography (VPC). Technically, GPLC is the most correct term, since the separation of components in this type of chromatography relies on differences in behavior between a flowing mobile gas phase and a stationary liquid phase. The instrument that performs gas chromatography is called a gas chromatograph. The resulting graph that shows the data is called a gas chromatogram. Uses of Gas Chromatography GC is used as one test to help identify components of a liquid mixture and determine their relative concentration. It may also be used to separate and purify components of a mixture. Additionally, gas chromatography can be used to determine vapor pressure, heat of solution, and activity coefficients. Industries often use it to monitor processes to test for contamination or ensure a process is going as planned. Chromatography can test blood alcohol, drug purity, food purity, and essential oil quality. GC may be used on either organic or inorganic analytes, but the sample must be volatile. Ideally, the components of a sample should have different boiling points. How Gas Chromatography Works First, a liquid sample is prepared. The sample is mixed with a solvent and is injected into the gas chromatograph. Typically the sample size is small in the microliters range. Although the sample starts out as a liquid, it is vaporized into the gas phase. An inert carrier gas is also flowing through the chromatograph. This gas shouldnt react with any components of the mixture. Common carrier gases include argon, helium, and sometimes hydrogen. The sample and carrier gas are heated and enter a long tube, which is typically coiled to keep the size of the chromatograph manageable. The tube may be open (called tubular or capillary) or filled with a divided inert support material (a packed column). The tube is long to allow for a better separation of components. At the end of the tube is the detector, which records the amount of sample hitting it. In some cases, the sample may be recovered at the end of the column, too. The signals from the detector are used to produce a graph, the chrom atogram, which shows the amount of sample reaching the detector on the y-axis and generally how quickly it reached the detector on the x-axis (depending on what exactly the detector detects). The chromatogram shows a series of peaks. The size of the peaks is directly proportional to the amount of each component, although it cant be used to quantify the number of molecules in a sample. Usually, the first peak is from the inert carrier gas and the next peak is the solvent used to make the sample. Subsequent peaks represent compounds in a mixture. In order to identify the peaks on a gas chromatogram, the graph needs to be compared a chromatogram from a standard (known) mixture, to see where the peaks occur. At this point, you may be wondering why the components of the mixture separate while they are pushed along the tube. The inside of the tube is coated with a thin layer of liquid (the stationary phase). Gas or vapor in the interior of the tube (the vapor phase) moves along more quickly than molecules that interact with the liquid phase. Compounds that interact better with the gas phase tend to have lower boiling points (are volatile) and low molecular weights, while compounds that prefer the stationary phase tend to have higher boiling points or are heavier. Other factors that affect the rate at which a compound progresses down the column (called the elution time) include polarity and the temperature of the column. Because temperature is so important, it is usually controlled within tenths of a degree and is selected based on the boiling point of the mixture. Detectors Used for Gas Chromatography There are many different types of detectors that can be used to produce a chromatogram. In general, they may be categorized as non-selective, which means they respond to all compounds except the carrier gas, selective, which respond to a range of compounds with common properties, and specific, which respond only to a certain compound. Different detectors use particular support gases and have different degrees of sensitivity. Some common types of detectors include: Detector Support Gas Selectivity Detection Level Flame ionization (FID) hydrogen and air most organics 100 pg Thermal conductivity (TCD) reference universal 1 ng Electron capture (ECD) make up nitriles, nitrites, halides, organometallics, peroxides, anhydrides 50 fg Photo-ionization (PID) make up aromatics, aliphatics, esters, aldehydes, ketones, amines, heterocyclics, some organometallics 2 pg When the support gas is called make up gas, it means gas is used to minimize band broadening. For FID, for example, nitrogen gas (N2) is often used. The users manual that accompanies a gas chromatograph outlines the gases that can be used in it and other details. Sources Pavia, Donald L., Gary M. Lampman, George S. Kritz, Randall G. Engel (2006).  Introduction to Organic Laboratory Techniques (4th Ed.). Thomson Brooks/Cole. pp.  797–817.Grob, Robert L.; Barry, Eugene F. (2004).  Modern Practice of Gas Chromatography (4th Ed.). John Wiley Sons.Harris, Daniel C. (1999). 24. Gas Chromatography. Quantitative chemical analysis  (Fifth ed.). W. H. Freeman and Company. pp. 675–712. ISBN 0-7167-2881-8.Higson, S. (2004). Analytical Chemistry. Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-19-850289-0

Biography of Bernardo OHiggins, Liberator of Chile

Biography of Bernardo O'Higgins, Liberator of Chile Bernardo OHiggins (August 20, 1778–October 24, 1842) was a Chilean landowner, general, president, and one of the leaders of its struggle for independence. Although he had no formal military training, OHiggins took charge of the ragged rebel army and fought the Spanish from 1810 to 1818, when Chile achieved its independence. Today, he is revered as the liberator of Chile and the father of the nation. Fast Facts: Bernardo O'Higgins Known For:  Leader during Chiles struggle for independence, general, presidentBorn:  August 20, 1778 in Chilln, ChileParents: Ambrosio OHiggins and Isabel RiquelmeDied:  October 24, 1842 in Lima, PeruEducation: San Carlos College, Peru, Catholic school in EnglandNotable Quote: Lads! Live with honor, or die with glory! He who is brave, follow me! Early Life Bernardo was the illegitimate child of Ambrosio OHiggins, a Spanish officer born in Ireland who immigrated to South America and rose through the ranks of the Spanish bureaucracy, eventually reaching the high post of Viceroy of Peru. His mother Isabel Riquelme was the daughter of a prominent local, and he was raised with her family. Bernardo only met his father once (and at that time he did not know who he was) and spent most of his early life with his mother and traveling. As a young man, he went to England, where he lived on a small allowance that his father sent him. While there, Bernardo was tutored by legendary Venezuelan Revolutionary Francisco de Miranda. Return to Chile Ambrosio formally recognized his son in 1801 on his deathbed, and Bernardo suddenly found himself the owner of a prosperous estate in Chile. He returned to Chile and took possession of his inheritance, and for a few years he lived quietly in obscurity. He was appointed to the governing body as the representative of his region. Bernardo might well have lived his life as a farmer and local politician if it were not for the great tide of independence that was building in South America. OHiggins and Independence OHiggins was an important supporter of the September 18 movement in Chile, which began the nations struggle for independence. When it became apparent that the actions of Chile would lead to war, he raised two cavalry regiments and an infantry militia, mostly recruited from families who worked his lands. As he had no training, he learned how to use weapons from veteran soldiers. Juan Martà ­nez de Rozas was president and OHiggins supported him, but Rozas was accused of corruption and criticized for sending valuable troops and resources to Argentina to help the independence movement there. In July 1811, Rozas stepped down and was replaced by a moderate junta. OHiggins and Carrera The junta was soon overthrown by Josà © Miguel Carrera, a charismatic young Chilean aristocrat who had distinguished himself in the Spanish army in Europe before deciding to join the rebel cause. OHiggins and Carrera would have a tempestuous, complicated relationship for the duration of the struggle. Carrera was more dashing, outspoken, and charismatic, while OHiggins was more circumspect, brave, and pragmatic. During the early years of the struggle, OHiggins was generally subordinate to Carrera  and dutifully followed his orders as best he could. This power dynamic would not last, however. The Siege of Chilln After a series of skirmishes and small battles against the Spanish and royalist forces from 1811–1813, OHiggins, Carrera, and other rebel generals chased the royalist army into the city of Chilln. They laid siege to the city in July of 1813, in the middle of the harsh Chilean winter. The siege was a disaster for the rebels. The patriots could not completely dislodge the royalists. When they did manage to take part of the town, the rebel forces engaged in raping and looting, which caused the province to sympathize with the royalist side. Many of Carreras soldiers, suffering in the cold without food, deserted. Carrera was forced to lift the siege on August 10, admitting that he could not take the city. Meanwhile, OHiggins had distinguished himself as a cavalry commander. Appointed Commander Not long after Chilln, Carrera, OHiggins, and their men were ambushed at a site called El Roble. Carrera fled the battlefield, but OHiggins remained despite a bullet wound in his leg. OHiggins turned the tide of the battle and emerged a national hero. The ruling junta in Santiago had seen enough of Carrera after his fiasco at Chilln and his cowardice at El Roble and made OHiggins commander of the army. OHiggins, always modest, argued against the move, saying that a change of high command was a bad idea, but the junta had decided: OHiggins would lead the army. The Battle of Rancagua OHiggins and his generals battled Spanish and royalist forces throughout Chile for another year before the next decisive engagement. In September 1814, Spanish General Mariano Osorio was moving a large force of royalists into position to take Santiago and end the rebellion. The rebels decided to make a stand outside the town of Rancagua, on the way to the capital. The Spanish crossed the river and drove off a rebel force under Luà ­s Carrera (brother of Josà © Miguel). Another Carrera brother, Juan Josà ©, was trapped in the city. OHiggins bravely moved his men into the city to reinforce Juan Josà © in spite of the approaching army, which far outnumbered the rebels in the city. Although OHiggins and the rebels fought very bravely, the result was predictable. The massive royalist force eventually  drove the rebels out of the city. The defeat could have been avoided had Luà ­s Carreras army returned, but it did not- under orders from Josà © Miguel. The devastating loss at Rancagua meant that Santiago would have to be abandoned: There was no way to keep the Spanish army out of the Chilean capital. Exile OHiggins and thousands of other Chilean rebels made the weary trek into Argentina and exile. He was joined by the Carrera brothers, who immediately began jockeying for position in the exile camp. Argentinas independence leader,  Josà © de San Martà ­n, supported OHiggins, and the Carrera brothers were arrested. San Martà ­n began working with Chilean patriots to organize the liberation of Chile. Meanwhile, the victorious Spanish in Chile were punishing the civilian population for their support of the rebellion. Their harsh brutality only caused the people of Chile to long for independence. When OHiggins returned, the general population was ready. Return to Chile San Martà ­n believed that all of the lands to the south would be vulnerable as long as Peru remained a royalist stronghold. Therefore, he raised an army. His plan was to cross the Andes, liberate Chile, and then march on Peru. OHiggins was his choice as the man to lead Chiles liberation. No other Chilean commanded the respect that OHiggins did (with the possible exception of the Carrera brothers, whom San Martà ­n did not trust). On January 12, 1817, a formidable rebel army of some 5,000 soldiers set out from Mendoza to cross the mighty Andes. Like  Simà ³n Bolà ­vars epic 1819 crossing of the Andes, this expedition was very harsh. San Martà ­n and OHiggins lost some men in the crossing, although their sound planning meant that most soldiers survived. A clever ruse had sent the Spanish scrambling to defend the wrong passes and the army arrived in Chile unopposed. The Army of the Andes, as it was called, defeated the royalists at the  Battle of Chacabuco  on February 12, 1817, clearing the path to Santiago. When San Martà ­n defeated the Spanish last-gasp attack at the  Battle of Maipu  on April 5, 1818, the rebel victory was complete. By September 1818, most Spanish and royalist forces had retreated to try to defend Peru, the last Spanish stronghold on the continent. End of the Carreras San Martà ­n turned his attention to Peru, leaving OHiggins in charge of Chile as a virtual dictator. At first, he had no serious opposition: Juan Josà © and Luis Carrera had been captured attempting to infiltrate the rebel army. They were executed in Mendoza. Josà © Miguel, OHiggins greatest enemy, spent the years from 1817 to 1821 in southern Argentina with a small army, raiding towns in the name of gathering funds and weapons for liberation. He was finally executed after being captured, ending the long-standing and bitter OHiggins-Carrera feud. OHiggins the Dictator OHiggins, left in power by San Martà ­n, proved to be an authoritarian ruler. He hand-picked a Senate and the 1822 Constitution allowed representatives to be elected to a toothless legislative body.  OHiggins was a de facto dictator. He believed that Chile needed a strong leader to implement change and control simmering royalist sentiment. OHiggins was a liberal who promoted education and equality and curtailed the privileges of the wealthy. He abolished all noble titles, even though there were few in Chile. He changed the tax code and did much to encourage commerce, including the completion of the Maipo Canal. Leading citizens who had repeatedly supported the royalist cause saw their lands taken away if they had left Chile and they were heavily taxed if they remained. The Bishop of Santiago, the royalist-leaning Santiago Rodrà ­guez Zorrilla, was exiled to Mendoza. OHiggins further alienated the church by allowing Protestantism into the new nation and by reserving the right to meddle in church appointments. He made many improvements to the military, establishing different branches of service, including a Navy to be led by the Scotsman Lord Thomas Cochrane. Under OHiggins, Chile remained active in the liberation of South America, often sending reinforcements and supplies to San Martà ­n and  Simon Bolà ­var, then fighting in Peru. Downfall OHiggins support began to erode quickly. He had angered the elite by taking away their noble titles and, in some cases, their lands. He then alienated the commercial class by continuing to contribute to expensive wars in Peru. His finance minister Josà © Antonio Rodrà ­guez Aldea was revealed to be corrupt, using the office for personal gain. By 1822, hostility to OHiggins had reached a crucial point. The opposition to OHiggins gravitated towards General Ramà ³n  Freile as a leader, himself a hero of the Independence wars, if not a hero of OHiggins stature. OHiggins attempted to placate his foes with a new constitution, but it was too little, too late. Seeing that cities were prepared to rise against him in arms, OHiggins agreed to step down on January 28, 1823. He remembered only too well the costly feuding between himself and the Carreras and how a lack of unity had almost cost Chile its independence. He went out in dramatic fashion, baring his chest to the assembled politicians and leaders who had turned against him and inviting them to take their bloody revenge. Instead, all present cheered for him and escorted him to his home. Exile General Josà © Marà ­a de la Cruz claimed that OHiggins peaceful departure from power avoided a good deal of bloodshed and said, OHiggins was greater in those hours than he had been in the most glorious days of his life. Intending to go into exile in Ireland, OHiggins made a stop in Peru, where he was warmly welcomed and given a large estate. OHiggins had always been a somewhat simple man and a reluctant general, hero, and president, and he happily settled into his life as a landowner. He met Bolà ­var and offered his services, but when he was offered only a ceremonial position, he returned home. Final Years and Death During his final years, OHiggins acted as an unofficial ambassador from Chile to Peru, although he never did return to Chile. He meddled in the politics of both countries, and he was on the verge of being unwelcome in Peru when he was invited back to Chile in 1842. He did not make it home, as he died of heart trouble while en route on October 24, 1842. Legacy Bernardo OHiggins was an unlikely hero. He was a bastard for most of his early life, unrecognized by his father, who was a devout supporter of the king. Bernardo was ingenious and dignified, not particularly ambitious nor an especially dazzling general or strategist. He was in many ways as unlike Simà ³n Bolivar as it is possible to be: Bolà ­var had much more in common with the dashing, confident Josà © Miguel Carrera. Nevertheless, OHiggins had many positive qualities that were not always apparent. He was brave, honest, forgiving, and dedicated to the cause of liberty. He did not back down from fights, even those he could not win. During the wars of liberation, he was often open to compromise when more stubborn leaders like Carrera were not. This prevented unnecessary bloodshed among rebel forces, even if it did mean repeatedly allowing the hot-headed Carrera back into power. Like many heroes, most of OHiggins failings have been forgotten and his successes are exaggerated and celebrated in Chile. He is revered as the Liberator of his country. His remains lie in a monument called The Altar of the Fatherland. A city is named after him, as well as several Chilean navy ships, countless streets, and a military base. Even his time as dictator of Chile, for which he has been criticized for clinging too tightly to power, is viewed by many historians as more beneficial than not. He was a strong personality when his nation needed guidance, yet by most accounts, he did not overly repress the people or use his power for personal gain. Many of his liberal policies, seen as radical at the time, are respected today. Sources Concha Cruz, Alejandor and Maltà ©s Cortà ©s, Julio.  Historia de Chile.  Bibliogrfica Internacional, 2008.Harvey, Robert.  Liberators: Latin Americas Struggle for Independence. The Overlook Press, 2000.Lynch, John.  The Spanish American Revolutions 1808–1826. W. W. Norton Company, 1986.Scheina, Robert L.  Latin Americas Wars, Volume 1: The Age of the Caudillo 1791–1899. Brasseys Inc., 2003.Concha Cruz, Alejandor and Maltà ©s Cortà ©s, Julio.  Historia de Chile  Santiago: Bibliogrfica Internacional, 2008.Harvey, Robert.  Liberators: Latin Americas Struggle for Independence.The Overlook Press, 2000.Lynch, John.  The Spanish American Revolutions 1808-1826. W. W. Norton Company, 1986.Scheina, Robert L.  Latin Americas Wars, Volume 1: The Age of the Caudillo 1791-1899. Brasseys Inc., 2003.